Table 3 The association between individual socio-demographic, social and clinical characteristics, and depression among participants
Variables | Crude OR (95% CI) | p-value |
|---|---|---|
Age | 0.98 (0.96–0.99) | 0.030* |
Gender | ||
 Male | 1 |  |
 Female | 0.76 (0.43–1.34) | 0.341 |
Ethnicity | ||
 Non-Malays | 1 |  |
 Malays | 0.84 (0.47–1.50) | 0.545 |
Marital status: | ||
 Married | 1 |  |
 Not married | 1.05 (0.53–2.08) | 0.890 |
Education | ||
 Secondary & below | 1 |  |
 Tertiary | 0.85 (0.48–1.53) | 0.596 |
Employment | ||
 Employed | 1 |  |
 Unemployed | 0.91 (0.46–1.81) | 0.788 |
 Retired | 0.42 (0.20–0.87) | 0.019* |
Household income | ||
  < RM3,000 | 1 |  |
 RM3,000–6000 | 0.96 (0.41–1.97) | 0.916 |
  > RM6,000 | 0.36 (0.14–0.89) | 0.027* |
Regular religious practice | ||
 Disagree | 1 |  |
 Neutral | 0.24 (0.07–0.78) | 0.018* |
 Agree | 0.22 (0.08–0.58) | 0.002* |
Perceived social support | ||
 Poor | 1 |  |
 Neutral | 2.40 (0.46–12.57) | 0.300 |
 Good | 0.79 (0.16–3.87) | 0.773 |
Cigarette smoking | ||
 Non-smoker | 1 |  |
 Smoker | 1.13 (0.61–2.10) | 0.700 |
Alcohol | ||
 No | 1 |  |
 Yes | 0.50 (0.14–1.71) | 0.268 |
Recreational drug use | ||
 No | 1 |  |
 Yes | 0.98 (0.11–9.10) | 0.988 |
Obesity | ||
 BMI < 25 | 1 |  |
 BMI 25–30 | 1.32 (0.64–2.75) | 0.454 |
 BMI > 30 | 1.02 (0.44–2.39) | 0.962 |
Diabetes mellitus type | ||
 Type I or gestational diabetes | 1 |  |
 Type II diabetes | 1.11 (0.40–3.06) | 0.840 |
Insulin therapy: | ||
 No | 1 |  |
 Yes | 0.83 (0.46–1.47) | 0.513 |
Good self-perceived diabetic management | ||
 Disagree | 1 |  |
 Neutral | 0.49 (0.16–1.53) | 0.218* |
 Agree | 0.20 (0.07–0.59) | 0.004* |
Diabetic control | ||
 Good | 1 |  |
 Poor | 1.42 (0.74–2.70) | 0.289 |
Anxiety | ||
 No Anxiety | 1 |  |
 Anxiety | 36.68 (12.00–112.06) | <  0.001* |
Overall perception of QOL | ||
 Poor/very poor | 1 |  |
 Neutral | 0.14 (0.03–0.73) | 0.019* |
 Good/very good | 0.05 (0.01–0.28) | <  0.001* |
Overall perception of health | ||
Poor/very poor | 1 | Â |
 Neutral | 0.46 (0.21–0.98) | <  0.045* |
 Good/very good | 0.20 (0.09–0.46) | <  0.001* |
WHOQOL-BREF domains | ||
 Physical health | 0.66 (0.58–0.76) | <  0.001* |
 Psychological | 0.58 (0.49–0.61) | <  0.001* |
 Social relationships | 0.68 (0.59–0.77) | <  0.001* |
 Environment | 0.66 (0.56–0.78) | <  0.001* |
BFI subscales | ||
 Extraversion | 0.50 (0.28–0.89) | 0.018* |
 Agreeableness | 0.36 (0.18–0.73) | 0.004* |
 Conscientiousness | 0.33 (0.17–0.63) | 0.001* |
 Neuroticism | 5.54 (3.02–10.18) | <  0.001* |
 Openness | 1.23 (0.70–2.17) | 0.476 |
 Neuroticism x perceived social support | 1.19 (1.06–1.33) | 0.004* |